Which factors drove the expansion of the ottoman empire in the 15th and 16th centuries?

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The Ottoman Empire: Institutions and Economic Change, 1500–1914

• Şevket PamukDepartment of Economics and Economic History, Bogaziçi University

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journal article

Renaissance Quarterly

Vol. 70, No. 1 (2017)

, pp. 220-234 (15 pages)

Published By: Cambridge University Press

https://www.jstor.org/stable/26560197

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Renaissance Quarterly is the leading American journal of Renaissance studies, encouraging connections between different scholarly approaches to bring together material spanning the period from 1300 to 1700 in Western history. The official journal of the Renaissance Society of America, RQ presents about twenty articles and over five hundred reviews per year, engaging the following disciplines: Americas, Art and Architecture, Book History, Classical Tradition, Comparative Literature, Digital Humanities, Emblems, English Literature, French Literature, Germanic Literature, Hebraica, Hispanic Literature, History, Humanism, Islamic World, Italian Literature, Legal and Political Thought, Medicine and Science, Music, Neo-Latin Literature, Performing Arts and Theater, Philosophy, Religion, Rhetoric and Women and Gender.

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Page history last edited by Robert W. Maloy 7 months, 1 week ago

Focus Question: What factors propelled the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries?

The Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire is the name given to a political and geographical entity governed by the Muslim Ottoman Turks.

• It is one of three notable Muslim empires grounded in the Islamic faith that arose during the time of Europe’s Age of Exploration and maintained considerable control of trade and economics in the Middle East

• In so doing, was a force of resistance to European efforts to control global trade markets.

This page by History.com holds an expansive overview on the Ottoman Empire. Use the navigation at the top left of the article to find specific information from the rise of the Empire to the decline of the Empire.

This page has a Interactive Ottoman Empire Timeline that can help students teach themselves the important dates and time during the reign of the Ottoman Empire

This is an Ottoman Empire Timeline Game that can help students engage themselves into the timeline, and hopefully get more about the lesson than a lecture.

Map from History.com

The Ottoman Empire was centered in present-day Turkey (formerly referred to as Anatolia) and extended its influence into southeastern Europe as well as the Middle East.

• It began in the late thirteenth century (1280) when a tribal leader named Osman began consolidating power in the northwestern part of the Turkish peninsula.
• It lasted until 1918, when it fell apart in the wake of the First World War and was replaced by the Turkish Republic.

Read here about the Ottoman Empire in Europe, including the extent of its conquest, and its influence on the Holy Roman Empire, Venice, Spain, and more.

Read about the Ottomans in Africa, from this lecture about Islam in North Africa, which places Ottoman conquest within a larger narrative of interactions between North Africa and the Middle East.

Read this article about the Ottoman's influence and reign specifically in Tunisia. Ottoman Empire in Tunisia 

Read this article about the Ottoman's influence and reign  specifically in Egypt. 

Ottoman Empire in Egypt 

Rise to Power. 

The Ottoman’s rise to power began in an area that had been part of the Byzantine Empire which itself was an extension of the Roman Empire The Rise of the Turks and the Ottoman Empire.

• The Byzantine Empire had served as a buffer between the “Muslim Middle East and the Latin West” until the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204(Duiker & Spielvogel, 2002, p. 361).
• Mehmed II , known as "Mehmed the Conqueror" led the attack on Constantinople and for this and other successful campaigns of conquest was given his nickname.
• Into this power vacuum, the Ottomans began expanding their control westward to the Black Sea, thus gaining dominance over key trade routes. In the mid-1300s, the Ottomans expanded into the Balkans and began asserting control over the waning Byzantine emperor in Constantinople.
• The city fell to the Ottoman forces in 1453 and was renamed Istanbul. In the next 100 years, Ottoman power expanded further into Europe, the Middle East, and Northern Africa.
• For more information: The Ottomans in Europe
• Read more about Constantinople (Istanbul) after the 13th century here
• The Ottomans profited from trading textiles in European markets. Read more about this, and the development of the contemporary "Ottoman style" here.

Read and listen to a history of the Ottomans as explored by the University of Texas-Austin. Part I available here and Part II available here.

• Diary of the Siege of Constantinople, 1453 by Nicolo Barbaro. A Venetian surgeon's eyewitness account. Below are two excerpts from this primary source that are available for free.
• Click here for an excerpt that begins after Nicolo's description of the preparation for the Siege.
• Click here for a shorter excerpt that details the final stages of the Siege.

A Gunpowder Empire 

Ottoman control has been called a “gunpowder empire” (Duiker & Spielvogel, 2002, p. 364). (See here ). The Ottomans mastered the art of warfare using firearms. This is part of the answer to why the empire was able to expand during the 15th and 16th centuries.

• The Turks had been pushed into the Near East from the eighth century onward by Mughal expansion in their original territory, around what is now Turkestan.
• At the beginning of the fourteenth century, the Turkish leader Osman I (c. 1258-1326) declared himself sultan, founding the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans spread their control over the area formerly held by the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire.
• In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1444-1446 and 1451-1481) conquered Constantinople, bringing the Byzantine Empire to an end.

Governmental Structure

The governmental structure of the Ottoman Empire was another reason for its expansion. The leader of the empire was the Sultan who was the political and military leader. Local tribal leaders ran different sections of the empire, collecting taxes and administering justice according to tribal traditions. This led to a relatively benign form of control that did not create lasting discontent among the peoples who were made part of the empire during its expansion.

• An important lynchpin of the Ottoman government and military were captured slaves of Christian origin, trained as children to be loyal only to the Sultan. A history of the Ottoman's use of slaves in both military and civil roles can be read in this article.

• For a look at how slave armies and bureaucrats functioned in the empire, as well as how the Ottoman Empire dealt with European countries like Venice, see Crash Course: World History.

• Read this article about how Ottoman elites were portrayed in their portraits, includes many pictures of different Sultans and other authority figures. Primary Source article about portraits from the Ottoman Empire 

The Weakening of the Empire

Over time, the Sultan’s court took on the trappings of imperial rule, but this led to the isolation of the leader from the realities of the empire. Succession was hereditary and there was considerable infighting among heirs when a sultan died. The effect over time was to weaken the power of the central government of the empire. * For the in-depth look at the various political, economic, and military reasons why the Ottoman Empire fell, see this three part article.

Sultanate of Women 

Another important political reality was the importance of women in the operation of the sultan’s court. The Queen Mother not only administered the imperial household, but also conducted diplomatic relationships with other countries and arranged marital alliances. This has been called the “sultanate of women” (further explanation of their influence can be seen in this video).

Among women in the population, the restrictions of Islam were less strictly enforced in the Ottoman Empire. Women could own and inherit property, could not be forced into marriage, and some held local governmental offices (Duiker & Spielvogel, 2002, p. 365).

Read this essay from Clark University about the extent of and limitations to women's autonomy in the Ottoman Empire, in politics, economics, and at home. The essay discusses Ottoman society from the 16th century onwards.

Read this essay from Binghamton University about how women in the Ottoman Empire used their role in harems as a channel for political agency, as well as misconceptions about Muslim women in the Western world.

Several of the Ottoman Empire's best poets were women.

• Fitnat Hanim is largely considered one of the best of these poets. 
• The book Women in the Ottoman Empire: Middle Eastern Women in the Early Modern Era by Madeline C. Zilfi contains information on Hanim and several other Ottoman female poets, along with selections of their work. 
• Link here for more information on women in the Ottoman Empire (Use the links on the left and top of the page to navigate around the site.)

Family Structures

• Rural women worked, while urban women were contained to the home.
• Visits to cemeteries and public baths were frequent and regarded as a woman's right.
• Young men and women were not allowed to get to know one another and were not allowed to choose who they were to marry.
• The man's family choose who he was to marry and if the woman's parents agreed, the parents would handle the details.
• If women would not be in contact with men, they were allowed to work. They usually made money through weaving and embroidering.
• Women worked as midwives as a moral obligation. Women were usually illiterate and therefore had to learn the skill through training or practice.

Suleiman the Great of the Ottomans

The Ottomans continued to expand geographically during Suleiman's rule, conquering new land in Europe and reaching as far as Vienna. Read more about this, and works of art and architecture created during this era, here

History in Artifacts: Tughra of Suleiman I from the British Museum.

Watch this video about Suleiman's official signature, which explains its political and artistic significance. The link also contains an interactive activity, teaching you how to read the complex calligraphy.

• Video on Suleiman the Magnificent

Focus Question: What factors contributed to the declining strength of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century?

Overview: 

• After the stunning sack of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire continued to advance and expand around the Eastern Mediterranean.

• This continued for several hundred years until the Ottoman Empire encountered the Austrian-Hapsburg Empire.

• After two failed sieges on the capital city of Vienna, 1529 & 1683, the Great Turkish War ensued, where Christian forces were finally able to repel the invading Ottoman Empire.

The Siege of Vienna, 1529. Painting by Peter Snayers

The First Siege of Vienna (1529) was the first attempt by the Ottoman Empire to capture the city of Vienna, Austria.

The attempt was unsuccessful and had dire consequences for the Empire which led to its decline.

• marked the height of Ottoman Empire
• result of long lasting rivalry with Europe

See 1529 Siege of Vienna video from the Military History Channel about the First Siege of Vienna.

Between the years 1566-1683 The Ottoman empire experienced several revolts and revivals. The negative aspects of this time period regarding the Ottomans and leading to their decline, include:

• European states attempted to curb overland trade by the Ottomans

• Western European states began to circumvent Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own naval routes to Asia

• Ottoman Currency was quickly inflated when Spanish silver from the New World spread through Europe

• Ottomans lacked advancing military technology contrary to the many developments being made in Europe

The Second Siege of Vienna (1683) often called The Battle of Vienna was the second attempt by the Ottoman Empire to capture Vienna.

• After the death of Koprulu Ahmed Pasha, Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha gained the viziership on November 5, 1676. Hungary had revolted against Austria and wanted Ottoman authority again. Mustafa Pasha declared Emeric Thokely as King to central Hungry.
• After, Emeric Thokely took the leadership of the Hungarians, he rebelled against the King of Austria, Leopold I. Thokely asked for an Ottoman assistance and Mustafa Pasha besieged Vienna on July 14, 1683.
• The siege took 60 days. Mustafa Pasha was waiting to strike a fatal attack but Jan III Sobieski, the King of Poland, led a relief force to Vienna to defend the city.
• Although the Turkish Tatars under Mustafa Pasha outnumbered by the Austrian, German and Polish armies, they were ultimately outmaneuvered and defeated[1] . The Ottomans withdrew through Belgrade. With the withdrawal of the Ottomans, Austrians entered Hungary and invaded Vishgrad, Uyvar, and Budapest.
• After this defeat, Sultan Mehmet IV was dethroned with the decision of council. Prince Suleyman replaced him in November 8, 1687.

* Click here to see how the Ottoman Empire declined.

Stagnation and reform resulted between the years 1683 and 1827. Events during this time period which led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire include:

• Much of the area in the Balkans was ceded to Austria
• Egypt became independent in all but name (subsequently became part of Britain and France)
• Central authority lessened as provincial autonomy increased
• Series of wars between Ottomans and Russians
• Attempts were made to update the military but were largely unsuccessful
• By 1815 Serbia gained autonomy

Other key factors which contributed to the Ottoman Decline:

• Sultan Suleman ruled with a military perspective and looked at subjects as soldiers. He looked only to advance through military means while the rest of the world around him was advancing industrially, agriculturally, scientifically, politically and economically.
• Sultan Suleman's main means of economic advancement was from looting and pillaging the people and places he had conquered. He was neither interested in the study of economics or advancing agriculturally or scientifically.

• The Islamic religion was neither questioned or challenged as was the Catholic religion in Europe. European society was advancing economically and searching for new means of profit around the world by searching for raw materials, and various markets for profits.
• The middle class in the Ottoman society were looked upon as a threat. The Ottoman middle class received little support and in fact their desire and attempt to advance economically was hindered by the Sultan. Meanwhile Europe's middle class advanced in wealth and influence.

• Economically the Ottoman Empire suffered greatly. The government sold the job of tax collecting to already wealthy individuals who became corrupt and taxed anyone who could afford to invest in new enterprises, hindering economic advancement.
• War and military expansion was the primary source of wealth. However, rulers also seized and taxed property. Less wealth was invested in the empire as a result.

Click here to watch a video about the decline of Ottoman Empire.

This is another video about the decline of the Ottoman Empire that is a little shorter and intended for younger students. The Decline of the Ottoman Empire Video 

• Click here to see a full timeline of the Islamic World

- Click here for an interesting game about the Ottoman Empire.

Women's Role in Ottoman society

1. ^ "The Siege and Battle of Vienna in 1683"Retrieved February 22, 2011 from : History on the Web: http://www.history-on-the-web.com/index.php?Itemid=41&catid=92:european-history&id=38:the-siege-and-battle-of-vienna-in-1683&option=com_content&view=article

What factors led to Ottoman expansion?

What are the three main factors that contributed to the growth of the Ottoman Empire after its emergence in northwestern Anatolia?

What happened to the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century?

What did the Ottoman Empire control in the 16th century?